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This module explores a set of empirical and normative questions about key markers of social and political difference: race, ethnicity, and nationality. It begins by investigating what, exactly these identities are. It explores debates about the social construction of race and ethnicity and examines how gender intersects with these identities. It proceeds to explore what, exactly, racism and xenophobia are. Then, it turns to contemporary politics to assess the role of these divisions in prevailing political institutions and dynamics. How are these identities measured and reproduced by governments through censuses? And how are these identities used/exploited by political elites through the use of stereotypes and propaganda? It then explores how countries compare in terms of racial and ethnic inequalities in the labor market, the educational system, and political system, and asks how institutional design can achieve more inclusion or perpetuate exclusion. What are the negative externalities of progress toward inclusion and equal rights? What does the future hold regarding equal rights and inclusion? Next, it turns to social movements and voters. How have these movements altered conversations around these identities? How do we address widespread anti-immigrant sentiment across the developed world? We connect the empirical discussion to normative and current debates about institutional racism, and what policy proposals should be pursued to redress existing injustices.